Photo Gallery

An exhibition by the University of Pittsburgh at the Senator John Heinz History Center
October 25, 2008 to April 5, 2009.

An exhibition by the University of Pittsburgh at the Senator John Heinz History Center
October 25, 2008 to April 5, 2009.

“Over the almost 400 years of the slave trade, from the late 15th to the late 19th century, 12.4 million souls were loaded onto slave ships and carried through a ‘Middle Passage’ across the Atlantic to hundreds of delivery points stretched over thousands of miles. Along the dreadful way, 1.8 million of them died, their bodies cast overboard to the sharks that followed the ships. Most of the 10.6 million who survived were thrown into the bloody maw of a killing plantation system, which they would in turn resist in all ways imaginable.”

–Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History, 2007

“Over the almost 400 years of the slave trade, from the late 15th to the late 19th century, 12.4 million souls were loaded onto slave ships and carried through a ‘Middle Passage’ across the Atlantic to hundreds of delivery points stretched over thousands of miles. Along the dreadful way, 1.8 million of them died, their bodies cast overboard to the sharks that followed the ships. Most of the 10.6 million who survived were thrown into the bloody maw of a killing plantation system, which they would in turn resist in all ways imaginable.”

–Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History, 2007

The surrounding sea served as a place of disposal and a feared punishment on the slave ship. Slaves who died or became incurably ill during the voyage were cast overboard. Uncooperative or rebellious slaves also were ordered into the sea, sometimes in groups. The sea ensured death either by drowning, starvation, or the sharks that surrounded slave ships.

Because sharks were feared by both slaves and crew, many ship captains relied on that fear to prevent escape, sometimes throwing slaves overboard to keep the sharks nearby.

Despite the certain danger of the sea, slaves were known to jump overboard to escape or commit suicide. Even if escapees did not drown or get eaten by sharks, they were often recaptured by the crew.

Once brought back on board, they were severely punished or killed to deter other would-be fugitives.

This figure was found wrapped in sheathing with other valuables and buried in the grounds of the current West African Nation of Cameroon. It dates back to the 17th century and has both Benin and Ife characteristics. Benin and Ife were large kingdoms northwest of the burial site that had long histories of bronze craftsmanship and made similar figures using the lost wax method. The figures were made to honor their kings and queens and helped represent their culture and traditions.

Some of this craftsmanship began to be practiced in neighboring states, including North Western Cameroon. It is believed that this figure was buried because of a known raid from the north that was coming to destroy the village, enslave the occupants, and confiscate their valuables.

From the collection of John L. Ford

Princes Island is located off the West Coast of Africa. This rare 1732 map from London, England, identified the port on the island that supported slavery practices and details the surrounding terrain.

Within the exposed terrain, note the Christian churches marked with red. European Christianity was introduced to West Africa along with the slave trade.

From the collection of John L. Ford

This rare London, England, map of 1732 charts the European forts that were used to facilitate the slave trade. El Mina, shown with red marker, was built by Portugal between 1481 and 1571. Cape Coast Castle, also marked with red, was built by Sweden in 1653.

Both countries were holders of captured Africans waiting to be shipped to the Americas. Other countries with forts on the Gold Coast were the Netherlands, England, and Spain.

Note the reference to the Atlantic Ocean as The Guinea Sea at The Ethiopian Ocean.

From the collection of John L. Ford

Gold has earned the reputation of currency since the earliest periods of recorded human activity, and Africa has demonstrated its leadership in production and trade with the metal throughout history.

Ghana is famous for its trade in gold. Bronze gold weights, like the larger one exhibited, were used to precisely measure the value of gold. This one dates back to the 18th century and would have been used to confirm the value of a variety of goods exchanged with Europeans during the slave trade.

The smaller gold weight is from the nearby Mossi Kingdom. It dates back to the 19th century and was used for the same purposes as those from Ghana.

From the collection of John L. Ford

Bronze anklets of various sizes and shapes were manufactured by West Africans to be used as money. In most cases, they were not worn. These two pieces are selected for exhibit because they have unusual markings and were found in the section of West Africa called the Slave Coast during the enslavement period in the 18th and 19th centuries.

From the collection of John L. Ford

Made from copper and manufactured only by the Katanga Kingdom in Central Africa, these crosses were made by pouring copper into molds made in sand. Amazing uniformity was achieved even though the manufacture was widespread throughout the kingdom. The crosses were also called Baluba crosses.

One cross was worth 10 kilos of flour, five or six fowls, six axes, or 3 or 4 kilos of rubber. Two crosses were worth a gun.

This cross was found in one of the largest slave holding forts during the enslavement period. Called Cape Coast Castle, it is located in current-day Ghana. It is not known how the cross came to be here, thousands of miles from its region of origin.

From the collection of John L. Ford

An ivory bracelet that once had its home in the current nation of Nigeria where the Igbo people reside. Prior to European enslavement and resulting colonization, Igbo, along with Hausa, Yoruba, and other smaller states now within Nigerian borders, was independent.

The excellent patina on the bracelet helps us determine its long history. The polished outside and dark colorization inside tell us that it was well cared for and worn daily with meticulous care. Even though cracks are evident on one end, they too were polished, apparently after hitting an equally hard object.

Ivory was worn only by members of the royal family, because it was scarce and sometimes used for money during the slave trade. Only after the 1967 Nigerian civil war did the bracelet leave the Igbo nation and was sold to collectors who continued to keep it well cared for. The bracelet offers visual evidence of the proud Igbo past.

From the collection of John L. Ford

An armlet found in the current nation of Cameroon. Its history is not known, but the design points to the Benin-Edo kingdoms. Its design is very similar to the bronze figure also displayed with this collection. The armlet provides evidence of Africa’s culture that was being lost or diminished by the slave trade.

From the collection of John L. Ford

This type of handcuff was used throughout the enslavement process and was often combined with leg irons. These were manufactured in England, which dominated the slave trade in the mid- to late-18th century.

For more information » Manacles

From the collection of John L. Ford

Africans were bound and shackled once they arrived at the slaveholding prisons of the European enslavers. This would last throughout their confinement and would only get worse during the transit to the Americas.

These leg irons are of English manufacture and made in the late 1700s. The metal grips at one end allowed multiple arrangements of group confinement of slaves that would exist during transit and sometimes during their confinement on American plantations. What appears to be the remains of blood can be seen on the inside rims.

For more information » Manacles

From the collection of John L. Ford

This rare book was written to promote the abolitionist movement. It details the horrors of the slave trade and provides pictures of the torture instruments used on Africans forcibly exported to the Americas.

Note the instrument that was used to force Africans to eat if they tried to starve themselves. Note the thumb press that would give excruciating pain when increasingly screwed down until blood ran. All of these tools and others would render Africans helpless and start the “breaking” process that was designed to demoralize those who survived.

From the collection of John L. Ford

 “ In the gray half light of November 27, 1758, amid the smoking ruins of the abandoned French fort at the Point, General John Forbes … stood with Colonel Bouquet and Colonel George Washington … . With the white troops forty-two Negro frontiersmen stood to watch … . [They] were encamped on the spot when for the first time in history a letter, from Forbes to Sir William Pitt bore the heading; “Pittsburgh, 27th November 1758.”

“ In the spring of 1759, [Commandant Hugh Mercer] wrote to Mr. Richard Peters, provincial secretary and superintendent of Indian affairs, for ‘two Negro girls and a boy about fourteen years old, to be paid for in fur.’ ”

–The WPA History of the Negro in Pittsburgh, Laurence A. Glasco

British surveyors Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon defined the boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland in the 1760s to resolve a land dispute between the two colonies. Known as the Mason-Dixon Line, the boundary became the symbolic division between the slave-owning states to the South and the “free” states to the North. In 1799, it was extended to settle border disputes between Pennsylvania and Virginia.

For more information » Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania - Border Disputes Rage with Virginia

Pittsburgh in 1806 is believed to be the earliest illustration of the city. Painted by landscape artist George Beck (1749–1812), Pittsburgh in 1806 highlights the natural beauty of the frontier town at a time when it was becoming known for its military and commercial strengths. It also depicts the homes of many of the town’s important early settlers who were playing key roles not only in the economic development of the city, but in establishing the behavior and mores surrounding slavery.

Although it is titled Pittsburgh in 1806, the painting may actually portray Pittsburgh in 1804, the year Beck visited. The painting itself seems to suggest the earlier date. Pittsburgh’s first big fire was on July 25, 1805, and some 20 buildings were destroyed on Market Street. This devastation is not evident in the painting.

For more information about the painting » Pittsburgh, 1806 at Historic Pittsburgh

Courtesy of the University Library System, University of Pittsburgh

This is the official census of the United States in 1840. Note the numbers of free White, “colored,” and slaves in Western Pennsylvania. In 1780, Pennsylvania passed the Gradual Abolition Act that would free all slaves born after March 1, 1780, if and when they reached the age of 28. Certain slave owners were able to circumvent the system by having their female slaves birth their children in nearby slave states like Maryland or Virginia. Note that several Western Pennsylvania counties show young slaves that should have been free if they were born in Pennsylvania.

Also note the peculiar category of “idiots,” today a pejorative term, but one that the census used between 1840 and 1890.

From the collection of John L. Ford

The debate over slavery goes back to Pittsburgh’s earliest leaders. Many of the people who began commerce here, founded banks, preached in pulpits, ran for public office, and served as judges—and many whose names today adorn local streets and towns—owned slaves. But others, equally powerful, opposed the institution.

For more information » Powerful Early Pittsburghers

Slaveholders and Non-Slaveholders as recorded in slave and Negro birth registries, the U.S. Census, and Allegheny County slave papers

For more information » Pioneer settlers of the Pittsburgh Region

Two of the earliest institutions of Pittsburgh—both founded by Hugh Henry Brackenridge one year apart, and both still existing today—became important voices on the issue of slavery.

The Pittsburgh Gazette, established in 1786, made a portion of its early revenue from running advertisements for the sale of slaves and the capture and return of fugitive slaves. But by the 1830s, Editor Neville Craig stopped accepting such advertising and opposed slavery editorially.

Likewise, the Pittsburgh Academy, chartered in 1787, began with a board of trustees that included slaveholders. But by 1819, it evolved to become the Western University of Pennsylvania and was led by Robert Bruce, a strong antislavery advocate.

The Pittsburgh Gazette is now the Pittsburgh Post- Gazette; the Pittsburgh Academy, later Western University of Pennsylvania, is now the University of Pittsburgh.

For more information » Pittsburgh Gazette: Position on Slavery Evolves and » Pittsburgh Academy: Roots, Race, and Legacy

Detail Reads:

Ranaway from the fubfcriber,

living in Pittsburgh, about the ift isfant, a Negro boy named JOE, 14 or 15 years of age and bound to 28. He was taken up by Mr. ­omas Lee, 15 miles from this place, on the road to Greensburgh; he remained with Mr. Lee 8 or 9 days, who propofed buying him of me, but while the negociation was carrying on, Joe went off again, and faid he would return home. He may ftill be in the vicinity, but I am raher inclined to think he is gone down the road with the intent to pafs the mountains, as he told Mr. Lee (when he took him up) that he was then going to Baltimore. He had attached himself to and was in company with fome wagons bound for that place. He is a light coloured Negro, fmart and active, very artiul and can connive a very platilible ftory. Any perfon that will fend him home to me fhall be liberally rewarded in proportion to the diftance, expenc and trouble he may be at.

A. KIRKPATRICK.

Detail Reads:

20 DOLLARS REWARD.

RANAWAV from the subscriber living in Pittsburgh, on the 15 inst a Negro boy named MOSES, between 16 and 17 years of age, well grown of his age. He had on when he went away a drab coloured cloth roundabout, olive velvet pantaloons, stripped Lindsay vest twilled, and an old castor hat. Ten dollars will be given if taken within the limits of Pittsburgh; fifteen if within the county of Allegheny, and twenty if taken out of the county, and secured in any jail so that his master may get him again, or, if brought home reasonable charges.

JOSEPH BARKER

Unchained Memories, a 2002 HBO documentary, presents dramatic readings by celebrated African American actors of the Slave Narratives—firsthand accounts compiled by the Federal Writers Project during the Great Depression and now housed in the Library of Congress. Excerpted from more than 2,000 interviews of former slaves, these on-camera accounts are interspersed with archival photographs, authentic period music, and creative footage to present a living historical record of slavery’s brutal legacy.

Narrated by Whoopi Goldberg, the film features readings by Angela Bassett, Don Cheadle, Samuel L. Jackson, Oprah Winfrey, and others.

Discovered in 2007, the legal documents from 1792 to 1857 depict the drama of slavery in Pittsburgh in clinical court language, as slaves were freed by their slaveholders or by their self-purchase or were transferred to indentured servitude.

The documents betray another cruelty of the slave system: Many persons described as “light-skinned,” “yellow” or “mulatto” slaves were the progeny of White slaveholders who took sexual liberties with their slaves.

For more information » About the Newly Discovered Slave Papers

For more information » About the Newly Discovered Slave Papers

Different quotes from the Freedom and Indenture Papers

Black and white steel engraving by A.W. Graham, based upon a painting by John or Godfrey Frankenstein. A color version of this print was used in the April 1847 edition of Graham’s Magazine.

The view is from the Ohio River, near Saw Mill Run, where a young man carries oars along the dirt road. Looking up to the Point, along the river road, one can see in the distance smoke rising from the many chimneys and smokestacks in the city, as well as those in Birmingham (south side of the Monongahela River).

The original painting may have been executed before the Great Fire of 1845, as the Monongahela Bridge is rendered as a covered bridge. By 1846, that bridge was destroyed in the fire, and replaced with a suspension bridge.

From the collection of Thomas M. Weprich

Published by J. H. Colton & Co., New York, this map was dated 1855 and appeared in an 1859 edition of Colton’s General Atlas. Two citys—Pittsburg and Allegheny, now North Side—appear on the same page, colored by ward, and showing streets, main buildings, railroad stations, and so on.

From the collection of Thomas M. Weprich

Versions of this wood engraving were published in Sherman Day’s Historical Collections of the State of Pennsylvania, George W. Gorton (1843) and in A Treasury of Knowledge, edited and published by Robert Sears in New York in 1849.

The view looks down from Coal Hill on glass factories and workers’ houses in Sligo (what is now the South Side). In the foreground the structures are depicted dark as they were constantly exposed to industrial smoke.

On the right is the Monongahela bridge, the Steamboat landing, and the Monongahela House, near the end of the bridge. To the left of that is the cupola of the Western University of Pennsylvania, now the University of Pittsburgh, and farther to the left, on high ground, the new Court House and a cathedral, with the spire of the Presbyterian Church between them. On the left is the Allegheny River, with several bridges leading to Allegheny city the second bridge sustains the aqueduct of the canal.

Note also the covered Monongahela Bridge over the Monongahela River to Birmingham.

From the collection of Thomas M. Weprich

The first permanent Allegheny County courthouse sat atop market stalls in the old “diamond” section of the city, now Market Square. Built in 1794, the courthouse was replaced in 1841 when the new building was located on the current Grant Street. The “diamond” courthouse was demolished in 1852.

From the collection of John L. Ford

Published in 1905, this is one of the finest books written on Pittsburgh’s early history. Many of the images of people and places in this exhibition are from its detailed contents.

From the collection of John L. Ford

This rare manuscript was written to record the debates and conclusions for the new U.S. Constitution in 1787. Within the manuscript are the arguments that ultimately would state that enslaved Africans would be considered three-fifths of a person for purposes of determining the number of representatives each state would have in Congress.

From the collection of John L. Ford

Mulatto

Mulatto is a term for an individual born of one White and one Black parent. From the Spanish word for young mule, mulatto also refers to a person of mixed race. Light-skinned African Americans often were referred to as mulattoes, regardless of heritage.

Mulattoes were more likely to be manumitted, to be educated, and to own property—benefits often conferred through a White father. However, due to the socially accepted “one-drop rule,” whereby a person with one drop of African blood was considered Black or Negro, the majority of mulattoes were granted no special privileges because of their racial status or classification. In fact, throughout the 19th and much of the 20th century, mulattoes were stereotyped in literature and culture as tragic figures, neither fully White or Black.

Yellow

Yellow, as seen in this exhibition, refers to the complexion of a very light-skinned mulatto or person descended from a mulatto. It is sometimes spelled as “yaller.”

Miscegenation

Miscegenation, from two Latin root words meaning “mix” and “race,” refers to interracial mating or the interbreeding of races or ethnicities, especially between Whites and members of other races. Miscegenation between Whites and Blacks occurred frequently during the period of slavery and produced a large mixed population.

Many states had laws prohibiting interracial sex, cohabitation, and marriage. Pennsylvania’s first antimiscegenation law, “An Act for the better regulating of Negroes in this province,” was passed in 1725. The U.S. Supreme Court did not declare antimiscegenation laws unconstitutional until 1967.

As society vacillated on the abolition of slavery, thousands of slaves took action by escaping, risking severe punishment or death if caught. A few became well-known abolitionists and politicians. But even this hard-won freedom wasn’t guaranteed after the Federal Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 required the return of runaway slaves to their slaveholders.

The overwhelming need to be free often led slaves to make daring and ingenious escapes from their slaveholders. Equipped with little more than their own perseverance, creativity, and intellect, escaping slaves employed diverse ploys to travel secretly to the North, especially into Pennsylvania, facing the possibility of death at every turn.

Along this path, meet six slaves who succeeded in their great escapes using disguise, bluffs, the help of strangers, and even the post office. Some went on to greatness in their lives, teaching or preaching. Others became icons of the abolitionist movement. And another apparently lived quietly, out of publicity’s glare.

Today, more than 150 years later, their moments of escape are remembered as the forerunners of the end of slavery for all.

For more information » The Escape of Ellen and William Craft

For more information » The Escape of Ellen and William Craft, » The Escape of Henry Highland Garnet and » The Escape of Frederick Douglass

For more information » The Escape of Henry Highland Garnet

For more information » The Escape of Henry Highland Garnet

For more information » The Escape of Frederick Douglass

For more information » The Escape of Henry Highland Garnet and » The Escape of Frederick Douglass

For more information » The Escape of the Drennen Slave Girl and » The Monongahela House

For more information » The Escape of the Drennen Slave Girl

For more information » The Escape of Henry "Box" Brown

For more information » The Escape of Henry "Box" Brown

For more information » Notable Abolitionists in Pittsburgh

The Mystery, founded by Martin and Catherine Delany, was a weekly abolitionist newspaper that had the distinction of being the first Black newspaper published west of the Alleghenies. It covered the social, political, and economic concerns of Black Americans.

This coin was minted to support the colonization of African Americans in the newly formed State of Liberia on the African continent. Only about 10,000 of America’s roughly 500,000 free Blacks decided to resettle in Africa.

Pittsburgh’s Martin R. Delany visited Liberia in 1859 and traveled west to negotiate with the Abeokuta people of Nigeria for land for Black Americans. This movement never took hold for many reasons, including the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861.

From the collection of John L. Ford

Josiah Wedgwood of England was a keen advocate of abolishing slavery. In 1788, he sent this medallion and others like it to Benjamin Franklin in America. Previously a slaveholder, Franklin became one of the nation’s leading abolitionists in the 18th century and used this medallion as a symbol of his cause for the elimination of slavery. Several medallions were given to supporters of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society and were seen in Pittsburgh as well as Philadelphia. Franklin became president of the society in 1787.

The inscription on the medallion reads, “Am I not a man and a brother.” Those words and the chained figure of an African on the face of the medallion became a force to eliminate slavery in America.

From the collection of John L. Ford

John Brown was a white abolitionist who envisioned African American freedom and liberty by massive slave insurrection. He met and/or interacted with many abolitionists who might support his cause, including Martin R. Delany in Pittsburgh. Brown’s opposition to slavery is most remembered because of his raid on the Federal Arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Va., in 1859. Brown was wounded and arrested by local militia and federal troops led by Robert E. Lee.

This rare medallion is a commemorative minted in 1859 to remember Brown’s actions and beliefs, which resulted in his punishment: hanged until dead on December 2, 1859. The medallion was worn by a supporter in Pittsburgh and saved in private, local collections for the last 149 years.

From the collection of John L. Ford

Charles Avery was a White abolitionist who started a school for free Blacks in Allegheny City, which is now Pittsburgh’s North Side. This book was used to teach Pittsburgh’s African American population elementary arithmetic, which was taught along with reading and writing. Southern slaves were not allowed to read or write during slavery.

From the collection of John L. Ford

Pennsylvania had laws governing fugitive slaves before passage of the national Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. Black residents who were not known or who weren’t connected to the larger community risked being apprehended and sold into slavery.

From the collection of John L. Ford

This coin was minted to support the abolition of slavery. On the face of the coin is a female slave in chains, which mirrored the male figure used on previous abolition medallions. The inscription around the enslaved female reads, “Am I not a woman and a sister.”

From the collection of John L. Ford

In 1950, the Pittsburgh Courier ran the stories of eight prominent African American families in and around the Hill District at the time.

Reported and written by the late legendary Courier reporter, Frank Bolden, the series titled, “The First Hundred Years,” traced the history of these families, which often mirrored the history of Pittsburgh, as far back as 1728.

After the Civil War, this negative social satirical poster was produced and distributed throughout America. It characterizes African Americans as a people with lowered human value or worth. The 19th century poster was found in a Lawrenceville home with other materials when the home was torn down in the mid 20th century.

From the collection of John L. Ford

After the Civil War, the Ku Klux Klan was organized and wreaked havoc in the African American community, with cross burnings, mutilation, and hangings. This 1870 medallion belonged to a KKK member.

From the collection of John L. Ford

This 1868 book promotes White superiority and defends slavery and African inferiority. The illustration is representative of the book’s contents.

From the collection of John L. Ford

The 1868 membership book for the Gomer Lodge of Odd Fellows states that a member could only be of White race. Pittsburgh, like most of America, remained segregated after the Civil War.

From the collection of John L. Ford

From the collection of John L. Ford

This poster is a rare print of the painted 1863 broadside asking Africans Americans in slave-free states to join the Union Army during the Civil War. It was effective because it confirmed the federal proclamation that Blacks would be allowed to fight for the freedom of those that were enslaved in Southern states and for the thought that equality would be granted to all. More than 8,500 African Americans from Pennsylvania fought in the war; about 975 were from Western Pennsylvania. Based on the free Black population in the area at the time, this was a very large enlistment.

From the collection of John L. Ford

The “Proclamation of Freedom,” or the Emancipation Proclamation, was drafted on July 22, 1862, and took effect on January 1, 1863. The proclamation declared that all enslaved Blacks residing in the territory in rebellion against the federal government would be free. Naturally, the states in rebellion did not act on Lincoln’s order. But the proclamation did indicate to all Americans and to the world that the Civil War was now being fought to end slavery.

From the collection of John L. Ford

After the Civil War, Auntee worked as a live-in housekeeper at the Magnus Miller Murray estate and also worked at the Thomas M. Howe estate, both off Fifth Avenue in the East End. Her real name was never mentioned in the picture records of these important Pittsburgh families, but from the album in which these photos were kept, we learn that she had been a slave in years past in another county.

From the collection of John L. Ford

The Smith family has a history in Western Pennsylvania that dates back to 1750. This free Black family owned land near Uniontown, Pa., and was engaged in logging and farming. This picture was taken by John L. Ford who visited the gravesite. Henry Smith was one of the soldiers with African heritage who fought to make America slave free.

From the collection of John L. Ford

This letter of protest by Protestant Episcopal clergy was distributed throughout the country, including Pennsylvania, to protest the pro-slavery letter of Bishop John Henry Hopkins, of the diocese of Vermont. Some 160 clergy signed the letter dated September 18, 1863 to support abolition and apologize for the pro-slavery sentiments of Hopkins.

From the collection of John L. Ford

For more information » Reflections on Free at Last?